What Is a Lizard That Has the Letters Again in Its Name

Family of reptiles

Chameleons Temporal range: Early Miocene – present, 26–0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J One thousand Pg N Middle Paleocene origins
Chamaeleonidae
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Reptilia
Order:	Squamata
Suborder:	Iguania
Clade:	Acrodonta
Family:	Chamaeleonidae Rafinesque, 1815
Genera
Brookesiinae Brookesia Palleon Chamaeleoninae Archaius Bradypodion Calumma Chamaeleo Furcifer Kinyongia Nadzikambia Rieppeleon Rhampholeon Trioceros
Native range of Chamaeleonidae

Chameleons or chamaeleons (family unit Chamaeleonidae) are a distinctive and highly specialized clade of Sometime World lizards with 202 species described as of June 2015.^[i] These species come in a range of colours, and many species have the ability to change colour.

Chameleons are distinguished past their zygodactylous feet, their swaying gait,^[two] and crests or horns on their brow and snout. Almost species, the larger ones in particular, also have a prehensile tail. Chameleons' optics are independently mobile, simply in aiming at a casualty item, they focus forward in coordination, affording the animal stereoscopic vision.

Chameleons are adapted for climbing and visual hunting. They live in warm habitats that range from rainforest to desert conditions, with various species occurring in Africa, Madagascar, southern Europe, and beyond south asia every bit far as Sri Lanka. They have been introduced to Hawaii, California, and Florida.^[3]

Etymology [edit]

The English language word chameleon ( kuh-MEEL-ee-un) is a simplified spelling of Latin chamaeleōn ,^[four] a borrowing of the Greek χαμαιλέων (khamailéōn),^[5] a chemical compound of χαμαί (khamaí) "on the ground"^[6] and λέων (léōn) "panthera leo".^{[7] [viii] [9]}

Classification [edit]

The family unit Chamaeleonidae was divided into ii subfamilies, Brookesiinae and Chamaeleoninae, by Klaver and Böhme in 1986.^[10] Under this classification, Brookesiinae included the genera Brookesia and Rhampholeon, as well as the genera later on split off from them (Palleon and Rieppeleon), while Chamaeleoninae included the genera Bradypodion, Calumma, Chamaeleo, Furcifer and Trioceros, as well as the genera after split off from them (Archaius, Nadzikambia and Kinyongia). Since that time, nonetheless, the validity of this subfamily designation has been the discipline of much fence,^[11] although most phylogenetic studies support the notion that the pygmy chameleons of the subfamily Brookesiinae are not a monophyletic group.^{[12] [13] [xiv] [15]}

While some government have previously preferred to utilize this subfamilial classification on the ground of the absence of evidence principle,^[eleven] these authorities after abandoned this subfamilial division, no longer recognizing any subfamilies with the family Chamaeleonidae.^[16]

In 2015, however, Glaw reworked the subfamilial sectionalisation by placing simply the genera Brookesia and Palleon inside the Brookesiinae subfamily, with all other genera being placed in Chamaeleoninae.^[1]

Change of color [edit]

Some chameleon species are able to change their skin coloration. Unlike chameleon species are able to vary their coloration and pattern through combinations of pink, blueish, blood-red, orangish, green, blackness, chocolate-brown, lite blue, yellow, turquoise, and majestic.^[17] Chameleon skin has a superficial layer which contains pigments, and under the layer are cells with very small (nanoscale) guanine crystals. Chameleons change colour by "actively tuning the photonic response of a lattice of small guanine nanocrystals in the s-iridophores".^[18] This tuning, by an unknown molecular mechanism, changes the wavelength of light reflected off the crystals which changes the color of the skin. The colour change was duplicated ex vivo by modifying the osmolarity of pieces of white pare.^[18]

Colour change and iridophore types in panther chameleons:
(a) Reversible color change is shown for ii males (m1 and m2): during excitation (white arrows), background skin shifts from the baseline state (dark-green) to yellowish/orange, and both vertical confined and horizontal mid-body stripe shift from bluish to whitish (m1). Some animals (m2) have their blue vertical bars covered by reddish pigment cells.
(b) Red dots: time development in the CIE chromaticity chart of a third male with green skin in a loftier-resolution video; dashed white line: optical response in numerical simulations using a face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice of guanine crystals with lattice parameter indicated with black arrows.
(c) Haematoxylin and eosin staining of a cross-section of white skin showing the epidermis (ep) and the ii thick layers of iridophores.
(d) TEM images of guanine nanocrystals in S-iridophores in the excited land and three-dimensional model of an FCC lattice (shown in two orientations).
(e) TEM paradigm of guanine nanocrystals in D-iridophores.
Scale bars, xx mm ( c); 200 nm (d,e).^[18]

Colour change in chameleons has functions in camouflage, but well-nigh commonly in social signaling and in reactions to temperature and other weather. The relative importance of these functions varies with the circumstances, equally well every bit the species. Colour change signals a chameleon'due south physiological condition and intentions to other chameleons.^{[19] [20]} Because chameleons are ectothermic, another reason why they change colour is to regulate their trunk temperatures, either to a darker colour to absorb light and heat to raise their temperature, or to a lighter colour to reflect light and estrus, thereby either stabilizing or lowering their body temperature.^{[21] [22]} Chameleons tend to show brighter colours when displaying aggression to other chameleons,^[23] and darker colours when they submit or "give up".^[24] Some species, particularly those of Madagascar and some African genera in rainforest habitats, take blue fluorescence in their skull tubercles, deriving from bones and possibly serving a signaling function.^[25]

Some species, such as Smith's dwarf chameleon, arrange their colors for camouflage past the vision of the specific predator species (bird or ophidian) by which they are being threatened.^[26]

Chameleons take ii superimposed layers inside their pare that control their colour and thermoregulation. The summit layer contains a lattice of guanine nanocrystals, and by exciting this lattice the spacing betwixt the nanocrystals tin can be manipulated, which in plough affects which wavelengths of light are reflected and which are absorbed. Exciting the lattice increases the distance between the nanocrystals, and the skin reflects longer wavelengths of light. Thus, in a relaxed country the crystals reverberate blueish and green, but in an excited state the longer wavelengths such every bit yellow, orange, greenish, and cherry are reflected.^[27]

The peel of a chameleon also contains some yellow pigments, which combined with the blue reflected by a relaxed crystal lattice results in the feature green color which is common of many chameleons in their relaxed state. Chameleon color palettes have evolved through evolution and the environment. Chameleons living in the forest take a more than defined and colorful palette compared to those living in the desert or savanna, which have more of a basic, dark-brown, and charred palette.^[28]

Development [edit]

The oldest described chameleon is Anqingosaurus brevicephalus from the Middle Paleocene (about 58.7–61.7 mya) of Red china.^[29] Other chameleon fossils include Chamaeleo caroliquarti from the Lower Miocene (about thirteen–23 mya) of the Czech Republic and Germany, and Chamaeleo intermediate from the Upper Miocene (about five–13 mya) of Kenya.^[29]

The chameleons are probably far older than that, perhaps sharing a common ancestor with iguanids and agamids more than 100 mya (agamids being more closely related). Since fossils accept been found in Africa, Europe, and Asia, chameleons were certainly once more widespread than they are today.

Although nearly half of all chameleon species today alive in Madagascar, this offers no basis for speculation that chameleons might originate from at that place.^[30] In fact, it has recently been shown that chameleons most likely originated in mainland Africa.^[15] It appears at that place were two distinct oceanic migrations from the mainland to Republic of madagascar. The various speciation of chameleons has been theorized to have straight reflected the increase in open habitats (savannah, grassland, and heathland) that accompanied the Oligocene period. Monophyly of the family is supported by several studies.^[31]

Daza et al. (2016) described a small (ten,6 mm in snout-vent length), probably neonatal cadger preserved in the Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian boundary) amber from Myanmar. The authors noted that the cadger has "curt and wide skull, large orbits, elongated and robust lingual procedure, frontal with parallel margins, incipient prefrontal boss, reduced vomers, absent retroarticular process, low presacral vertebral count (betwixt fifteen and 17) and extremely brusque, curled tail"; the authors considered these traits to be indicative of the cadger's affiliation with Chamaeleonidae. The phylogenetic analysis conducted by the authors indicated that the lizard was a stem-chamaeleonid.^[32] Yet, Matsumoto & Evans (2018) reinterpreted this specimen as an albanerpetontid amphibian.^[33]

While the verbal evolutionary history of color alter in chameleons is still unknown, there is ane aspect of the evolutionary history of chameleon color change that has already been conclusively studied: the effects of signal efficacy. Signal efficacy, or how well the signal tin be seen against its background, has been shown to correlate directly to the spectral qualities of chameleon displays.^[34] Dwarf chameleons, the chameleon of report, occupy a wide variety of habitats from forests to grasslands to shrubbery. Information technology was demonstrated that chameleons in brighter areas tended to present brighter signals, just chameleons in darker areas tended to present relatively more contrasting signals to their backgrounds. This finding suggests that signal efficacy (and thus habitat) has afflicted the development of chameleon signaling. Stuart-Fob et al. note that it makes sense that selection for crypsis is not seen to exist as of import as selection for signal efficacy, because the signals are only shown briefly; chameleons are almost always muted cryptic colors.^[34]

Clarification [edit]

Nigh all species of chameleon take prehensile tails, but they most oftentimes grip with the tail when they cannot use all 4 feet at in one case, such as when passing from one twig to another.

Chameleons vary greatly in size and body structure, with maximum total lengths varying from xv mm (0.59 in) in male Brookesia micra (ane of the world's smallest reptiles) to 68.5 cm (27.0 in) in the male Furcifer oustaleti.^[35] Many have head or facial ornamentation, such as nasal protrusions, or horn-like projections in the case of Trioceros jacksonii, or large crests on pinnacle of their heads, similar Chamaeleo calyptratus. Many species are sexually dimorphic, and males are typically much more than ornamented than the female chameleons.

Typical sizes of species of chameleon ordinarily kept in captivity or equally pets are:

Scientific name	Common proper noun	Length (male)	Length (female person)	color	Lifespan (years)
Chamaeleo calyptratus	Veiled chameleon	35–60 cm	25–33 cm	Green and lite colours	about v
Trioceros jacksonii	Jackson's chameleon	23–33 cm	25–33 cm	Light-green and light colours	5–x
Furcifer pardalis	Panther chameleon	38–53 cm	23–33 cm	Darker colours	virtually 5 (2–3 for birthing females)
Rieppeleon brevicaudatus	Bearded pygmy chameleon	5–8 cm	5–8 cm	Brown, beige, greenish	almost 3–five
Rhampholeon spectrum	Spectral pygmy chameleon	8–ten cm	5–10 cm	Tan and gray	iii–5
Rhampholeon temporalis	Usambara pitted pygmy chameleon	6–10 cm	five–9 cm	Gray and brownish	5–eleven

The feet of chameleons are highly adjusted to arboreal locomotion, and species such equally Chamaeleo namaquensis that have secondarily adopted a terrestrial addiction have retained the same foot morphology with little modification. On each foot, the 5 distinguished toes are grouped into 2 fascicles. The toes in each fascicle are bound into a flattened group of either two or three, giving each human foot a tongs-like advent. On the forepart anxiety, the outer, lateral, group contains two toes, whereas the inner, medial, group contains three. On the rear anxiety, this arrangement is reversed, the medial group containing two toes, and the lateral grouping 3. These specialized feet allow chameleons to grip tightly onto narrow or rough branches. Furthermore, each toe is equipped with a sharp claw to afford a grip on surfaces such equally bark when climbing. It is common to refer to the feet of chameleons as didactyl or zygodactyl, though neither term is fully satisfactory, both being used in describing different feet, such as the zygodactyl feet of parrots or didactyl feet of sloths or ostriches, none of which is significantly similar chameleon feet. Although "zygodactyl" is reasonably descriptive of chameleon foot anatomy, their foot construction does non resemble that of parrots, to which the term was kickoff applied. As for didactyly, chameleons visibly have v toes on each human foot, not two.

Some chameleons accept a crest of minor spikes extending along the spine from the proximal function of the tail to the neck; both the extent and size of the spikes vary between species and individuals. These spikes assistance break up the definitive outline of the chameleon, which aids it when trying to blend into a groundwork.

Senses [edit]

Chameleons have the most distinctive eyes of whatever reptile. The upper and lower eyelids are joined, with but a pinhole large enough for the student to see through. Each eye can pivot and focus independently, allowing the chameleon to find 2 different objects simultaneously. This gives them a total 360-caste arc of vision around their bodies. Casualty is located using monocular depth perception, non stereopsis.^[36] Chameleons take very good eyesight for reptiles, letting them run across small insects from a five–10 meter distance.^{[ citation needed ]} In fact, chameleons have the highest magnification (per size) of any vertebrate.^[37]

Like snakes, chameleons do not have an outer or a middle ear, then at that place is neither an ear-opening nor an eardrum. However, chameleons are non deaf: they tin can notice audio frequencies in the range of 200–600  Hz.^[38]

Chameleons can see in both visible and ultraviolet lite.^[39] Chameleons exposed to ultraviolet light testify increased social beliefs and activity levels, are more than inclined to bask and feed, and are also more likely to reproduce, as it has a positive upshot on the pineal gland.

Feeding [edit]

All chameleons are primarily insectivores that feed by ballistically projecting their long tongues from their mouths to capture prey located some distance away.^[40] While the chameleons' tongues are typically thought to be one and a half to 2 times the length of their bodies (their length excluding the tail), smaller chameleons (both smaller species and smaller individuals of the same species) take recently been plant to have proportionately larger tongue apparatuses than their larger counterparts.^[41] Thus, smaller chameleons are able to project their tongues greater distances than the larger chameleons that are the subject of most studies and tongue length estimates, and can project their tongues more than twice their body length.^[42]

The tongue appliance consists of highly modified hyoid bones, tongue muscles, and collagenous elements.^{[43] [44] [41] [45]} The hyoid bone has an elongated, parallel-sided projection, called the entoglossal process, over which a tubular muscle, the accelerator muscle, sits.^{[41] [45] [43] [44]} The accelerator musculus contracts around the entoglossal process and is responsible for creating the work to ability tongue project, both directly and through the loading of collagenous elements located betwixt the entoglossal process and the accelerator muscle.^{[40] [41] [43] [44]} The tongue retractor musculus, the hyoglossus, connects the hyoid and accelerator muscle, and is responsible for drawing the tongue back into the mouth post-obit tongue projection.^{[40] [41] [45] [43]}

Tongue project occurs at extremely high performance, reaching the prey in as little as 0.07 seconds,^{[43] [44] [46]} having been launched at accelerations exceeding 41 g.^[46] The power with which the tongue is launched, known to exceed 3000 W kg⁻¹, exceeds that which musculus is able to produce, indicating the presence of an elastic ability amplifier to power tongue project.^[44] The recoil of elastic elements in the tongue apparatus is thus responsible for large percentages of the overall tongue projection functioning.

One consequence of the incorporation of an elastic recoil mechanism to the natural language projection mechanism is relative thermal insensitivity of tongue projection relative to tongue retraction, which is powered past muscle contraction alone, and is heavily thermally sensitive.^{[46] [47]} While other ectothermic animals get sluggish as their trunk temperatures decline, due to a reduction in the contractile velocity of their muscles, chameleons are able to projection their tongues at high performance even at low body temperatures.^{[46] [47]} The thermal sensitivity of natural language retraction in chameleons, however, is non a problem, every bit chameleons take a very effective mechanism of holding onto their casualty once the tongue has come into contact with information technology, including surface phenomena, such equally wet adhesion and interlocking, and suction.^[48] The thermal insensitivity of tongue project thus enables chameleons to feed finer on common cold mornings prior to being able to behaviorally elevate their trunk temperatures through thermoregulation, when other sympatric lizards species are yet inactive, likely temporarily expanding their thermal niche as a result.^[46]

• Use of tongue in feeding

• 

  Tongue construction, with cup-like end

• 

  Tongue begins strike

• 

  Capturing prey

• 

  Bringing prey to the mouth

Bones [edit]

Certain species of chameleons have bones that glow when under ultraviolet light, also known as biogenic fluorescence.^[25] Some 31 dissimilar species of Calumma chameleons, all native to Madagascar, displayed this fluorescence in CT scans.^[49] The basic emitted a vivid blue glow and could even smoothen through the chameleon's four layers of skin.^[49] The face was found to accept a unlike glow, appearing as dots otherwise known as tubercles on facial bones.^[25] The glow results from proteins, pigments, chitin, and other materials that make upwards a chameleon'southward skeleton,^[25] possibly giving chameleons a secondary signaling system that does not interfere with their color-changing ability, and may have evolved from sexual option.^[25]

Distribution and habitat [edit]

Brookesia minima, Lokobe Strict Reserve. The xxx species of chameleons in the genus Brookesia are tiny, usually dark-brown-colored and mainly terrestrial.

Chameleons primarily alive in the mainland of sub-Saharan Africa and on the island of Madagascar, although a few species live in northern Africa, southern Europe (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece), the Middle East, southern India, Sri Lanka, and several smaller islands in the western Indian Ocean. There are introduced, feral populations of veiled and Jackson'southward chameleons in Hawaii, and isolated pockets of feral Jackson'due south chameleons have been reported in California, Florida and Texas.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Chameleons inhabit all kinds of tropical and mountain rain forests, savannas, and sometimes deserts and steppes. The typical chameleons from the subfamily Chamaeleoninae are arboreal, normally living in trees or bushes, although a few (notably the Namaqua chameleon) are partially or largely terrestrial. About species from the subfamily Brookesiinae, which includes the genera Brookesia, Rieppeleon, and Rhampholeon, live depression in vegetation or on the ground amid leaf litter. Many species of chameleons are threatened by extinction. Declining chameleon numbers are due to habitat loss.^[fifty]

Reproduction [edit]

Chameleons are mostly oviparous, with some being ovoviviparous.

The oviparous species lay eggs three to six weeks after copulation. The female volition dig a hole—from 10–30 cm (4–12 in), deep depending on the species—and deposit her eggs. Clutch sizes vary greatly with species. Small Brookesia species may but lay two to four eggs, while big veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus) have been known to lay clutches of 20–200 (veiled chameleons) and ten–twoscore (panther chameleons) eggs. Clutch sizes tin can also vary greatly among the same species. Eggs more often than not hatch after four to 12 months, again depending on the species. The eggs of Parson'south chameleon (Calumma parsonic), a species that is rare in captivity, are believed to accept more than 24 months to hatch.^[51]

Chameleons lay flexible-shelled eggs which are afflicted by environmental characteristics during incubation. The egg mass is the most important in differentiating survivors of Chameleon during incubation. An increment in egg mass will depend on temperature and water potential.^[52] To empathise the dynamics of water potential in Chameleon eggs, the consideration of exerted pressure on eggshells will be essential considering the pressure of eggshells play an of import function in the h2o relation of eggs during entire incubation period ^[53]

The ovoviviparous species, such as the Jackson'due south chameleon (Trioceros jacksonii) have a five- to 7-month gestation period. Each young chameleon is born within the viscid transparent membrane of its yolk sac. The female parent presses each egg onto a branch, where information technology sticks. The membrane bursts and the newly hatched chameleon frees itself and climbs away to hunt for itself and hide from predators. The female can have up to 30 live young from i gestation.^[54]

Nutrition [edit]

Chameleons generally eat insects, but larger species, such as the common chameleon, may also take other lizards and young birds.^{[55] : 5} The range of diets can be seen from the post-obit examples:

• The veiled chameleon, Chamaeleo calyptratus from Arabia, is insectivorous, only eats leaves when other sources of water are not bachelor. It can be maintained on a diet of crickets.^[56] They can eat equally many as 15–50 large crickets a twenty-four hours.
• Jackson's chameleon (Trioceros jacksonii) from Kenya and northern Tanzania eat a broad variety of pocket-sized animals including ants, butterflies, caterpillars, snails, worms, lizards, geckos, amphibians, and other chameleons, too equally establish cloth, such as leaves, tender shoots, and berries. It can be maintained on a mixed nutrition including kale, dandelion leaves, lettuce, bananas, tomatoes, apples, crickets, and waxworms.^[54]
• The common chameleon of Europe, North Africa, and the Virtually East, Chamaeleo chamaeleon, mainly eats wasps and mantises; such arthropods course over 3-quarters of its diet.^{[55] : five} Some experts advise that the mutual chameleon should not be fed exclusively on crickets; these should make upwards no more than half the nutrition, with the rest a mixture of waxworms, earthworms, grasshoppers, flies, and establish materials such as dark-green leaves, oats, and fruit.^{[55] : v–vi}
• Some chameleons similar the panther chameleon of Madagascar regulate their vitamin D3 levels, of which their insect diet is a poor source, by exposing themselves to sunlight since its UV component increases internal production.^[57]

Anti-predator adaptations [edit]

Chameleons are preyed upon by a variety of other animals. Birds and snakes are the about important predators of adult chameleons. Invertebrates, particularly ants, put a loftier predation pressure on chameleon eggs and juveniles.^[58] Chameleons are unlikely to be able to flee from predators and rely on crypsis as their primary defense force.^[59] Chameleons tin change both their colors and their patterns (to varying extents) to resemble their surroundings or disrupt the body outline and remain hidden from a potential enemy's sight. Only if detected, chameleons actively defend themselves. They prefer a defensive torso posture, present an attacker with a laterally flattened body to appear larger, warn with an open oral cavity, and, if needed, utilize feet and jaws to fight back.^[60] Vocalisation is sometimes incorporated into threat displays.^[58]

• 

  Chameleon found in Mysore, Southern Republic of india

• 

  A flap-necked chameleon, Chamaeleo dilepis, attacked by a boomslang while crossing a road in Namibia adopts a threatening defense force posture.

Parasites [edit]

Chameleons are parasitized by nematode worms, including threadworms (Filarioidea). Threadworms can be transmitted by bitter insects such as ticks and mosquitoes. Other roundworms are transmitted through food contaminated with roundworm eggs; the larvae burrow through the wall of the intestine into the bloodstream.^[61]

Chameleons are discipline to several protozoan parasites, such as Plasmodium, which causes malaria, Trypanosoma, which causes sleeping sickness, and Leishmania, which causes leishmaniasis.^[62]

Chameleons are subject to parasitism by coccidia,^[62] including species of the genera Choleoeimeria, Eimeria, and Isospora.^[63]

Equally pets [edit]

Chameleons are pop reptile pets more often than not imported from African countries similar Madagascar, Tanzania, and Togo.^[64] The most common in the trade are the Senegal chameleon (Chamaeleo senegalensis), veiled chameleon (Chamaeleo calyptratus), panther chameleon (Furcifer pardalis), and Jackson's chameleon (Trioceros jacksonii).^[64] The U.S. has been the main importer of chameleons since the early 1980s accounting for 69% of African reptile exports.^[64] Nonetheless, there have been large declines due to tougher regulations to protect species from being taken from the wild and due to many becoming invasive in places like Florida.^[64] They take remained pop though which may exist due to the captive-convenance in the U.Southward. which has increased to the point that the U.S. can fulfill its demand, and has now fifty-fifty get a major exporter too.^[64] In the U.S. they are then popular, that despite Florida having 6 invasive chameleon species due to the pet trade, reptile hobbyists in these areas search for chameleons to go along as pets or to breed and sell them, with some selling for upwardly to a chiliad dollars.^[3]

Historical understandings [edit]

Chameleon in a German translation of Gessner's volume (1563).

The chameleon was featured in Conrad Gessner's Historia animalium (1563), copied from De aquatilibus (1553) by Pierre Belon.^[65]

In Shakespeare's Hamlet, the eponymous Prince says "Excellent, i' faith, of the chameleon'southward dish. I eat the air, promise-crammed." This refers to the Elizabethan belief that chameleons lived on nada but the air.

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Glaw, F. (2015). "Taxonomic checklist of chameleons (Squamata: Chamaeleonidae)". Vertebrate Zoology. 65 (two): 167–246.
2. ^ Edmonds, Patricia (September 2015). "Truthful colours". National Geographic: 98.
3. ^ ^{a b} Daly, Natasha (2017). "Inside the Secretive World of Florida's Chameleon Catchers". National Geographic. {{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
4. ^ chamaeleon. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Brusk. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
5. ^ χαμαιλέων . Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Projection.
6. ^ χαμαί  in Liddell and Scott.
7. ^ λέων  in Liddell and Scott.
8. ^ "Chameleon". Lexicon.com.
9. ^ Harper, Douglas. "chameleon". Online Etymology Dictionary.
10. ^ Klaver, C.; Böhme, West. (1986). "Phylogeny and classification of the Chamaeleonidae (Sauria) with special reference to hemipenis morphology". Bonner Zoologische Monographien. 22: one–64.
11. ^ ^{a b} Tilbury, Colin (2010). Chameleons of Africa, An Atlas including the chameleons of Europe, the Centre East and Asia. Frankfurt: Edition Chimaira. ISBN978-3899734515.
12. ^ Townsend, T.; Larson, A. (2002). "Molecular phylogenetics and mitochondrial genomic evolution in the Chamaeleonidae (Reptilia, Squamata)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 23 (1): 22–36. doi:10.1006/mpev.2001.1076. PMID 12182400.
13. ^ Raxworthy, C. J.; Forstner, K. R. J.; Nussbaum, R. A. (2002). "Chameleon radiation by oceanic dispersal" (PDF). Nature. 415 (6873): 784–787. Bibcode:2002Natur.415..784R. doi:x.1038/415784a. hdl:2027.42/62614. PMID 11845207. S2CID 4422153.
14. ^ Townsend, T. One thousand.; Tolley, K. A.; Glaw, F.; Böhme, W.; Vences, G. (2011). "Eastward from Africa: Palaeocurrent-mediated chameleon dispersal to the Seychelles islands". Biological Letters. seven (2): 225–228. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0701. PMC3061160. PMID 20826471.
15. ^ ^{a b} Tolley, K. A.; Townsend, T. M.; Vences, Thou. (2013). "Large-scale phylogeny of chameleons suggests African origins and Eocene diversification". Proceedings of the Majestic Society B. 280 (1759): 20130184. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.0184. PMC3619509. PMID 23536596.
16. ^ Tilbury, Colin (2014). "Overview of the Systematics of the Chamaeleonidae". In Tolley, Krystal A.; Herrel, Anthony (eds.). The Biology of Chameleons. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 151–174. ISBN9780520276055.
17. ^ Chameleons. National Geographic Explorer
18. ^ ^{a b c} Teyssier, Jérémie; Saenko, Suzanne 5.; van der Marel, Dirk; Milinkovitch, Michel C. (10 March 2015). "Photonic crystals cause agile colour change in chameleons". Nature Communications. half dozen (i): i–7. doi:10.1038/ncomms7368. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC4366488. PMID 25757068.
19. ^ Stuart-Play a joke on, D.; Moussalli, A. (2008). "Selection for Social Signalling Drives the Evolution of Chameleon Colour Change". PLOS Biology. 6 (1): e25. doi:ten.1371/journal.pbio.0060025. PMC2214820. PMID 18232740.
20. ^ Harris, Tom (eighteen May 2001). "How Animal Camouflage Works". How Stuff Works. Retrieved 2006-11-13 .
21. ^ Walton, B. Michael; Bennett, Albert F. (1993). "Temperature-Dependent Color Change in Kenyan Chameleons". Physiological Zoology. University of Chicago Press. 66 (two): 270–287. doi:ten.1086/physzool.66.ii.30163690. ISSN 0031-935X. S2CID 80673490.
22. ^ Melt, Maria. "The Adaptations of Chameleons". Sciencing . Retrieved xv June 2020.
23. ^ Ligon, Russell A.; McGraw, Kevin J. (2013). "Chameleons communicate with complex color changes during contests: different body regions convey unlike information". Biology Letters. 9 (6): 20130892. doi:ten.1098/rsbl.2013.0892. PMC3871380. PMID 24335271.
24. ^ Ligon, Russell A (2014). "Defeated chameleons darken dynamically during dyadic disputes to decrease danger from dominants". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 68 (6): 1007–1017. doi:x.1007/s00265-014-1713-z. S2CID 18606633.
25. ^ ^{a b c d e} Prötzel, David; Heß, Martin; Scherz, Marker D.; Schwager, Martina; Padje, Anouk van't; Glaw, Frank (15 Jan 2018). "Widespread os-based fluorescence in chameleons". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 698. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8..698P. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-19070-7. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC5768862. PMID 29335580.
26. ^ Young, Emma (2008) Chameleons fine-tune cover-up to predator's vision. New Scientist
27. ^ National Geographic (2015) The colourful Language of Chameleons
28. ^ Stuart-Play a trick on, Devi; Moussalli, Adnan (2008-01-29). "Selection for Social Signalling Drives the Development of Chameleon Colour Change". PLOS Biology. half dozen (i): e25. doi:10.1371/journal.bio.0060025. ISSN 1545-7885. PMC2214820. PMID 18232740.
29. ^ ^{a b} Maisano, Jessie (27 August 2003). "Chamaeleo calyptratus, Veiled Chameleon". Digimorph. Academy of Texas at Austin. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
30. ^ Tolley, Krystal; Burger, Marius (2007). Chameleons of Southern Africa. Struik. pp. 26–28. ISBN978-ane-77007-375-3.
31. ^ Tolley, Krystal A.; Herrel, Anthony (16 November 2013). The Biological science of Chameleons. Univ of California Press. ISBN9780520276055 . Retrieved 1 November 2017 – via Google Books.
32. ^ Daza, Juan D.; Stanley, Edward Fifty.; Wagner, Philipp; Bauer, Aaron One thousand.; Grimaldi, David A. (2016). "Mid-Cretaceous amber fossils illuminate the past diversity of tropical lizards". Science Advances. ii (3): e1501080. Bibcode:2016SciA....2E1080D. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1501080. PMC4783129. PMID 26973870.
33. ^ Ryoko Matsumoto; Susan East. Evans (2018). "The offset record of albanerpetontid amphibians (Amphibia: Albanerpetontidae) from East Asia". PLOS 1. 13 (1): e0189767. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1389767M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0189767. PMC5752013. PMID 29298317.
34. ^ ^{a b} Stuart-Play tricks, D.; Moussalli, Adnan; Whiting, Martin J. (2007). "Natural Selection on Social Signals: Signal Efficacy and the Development of Chameleon Display coloration". The American Naturalist. 170 (half dozen): 916–930. doi:10.1086/522835. PMID 18171173. S2CID 21716855.
35. ^ Glaw, Frank; Vences, Miguel (1994). A Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles of Madagascar (2nd ed.). Köln: Verlags GbR. ISBN978-three-929449-01-3.
36. ^ Ott, Thou.; Schaeffel, F.; Kirmse, W. (1998). "Binocular vision and accommodation in casualty-catching chamaeleons". Comparative Physiology A. 182 (3): 319–330. doi:10.1007/s003590050182. S2CID 19988312.
37. ^ Ott, M., and F. Schaeffel. (1995). A negatively powered lens in the chameleon. Nature 373:692-694
38. ^ Le Berre and Bartlett, p. 31
39. ^ "Chamaeleon News". Chameleonnews.com. August 2004. Archived from the original on 22 Jan 2008. Retrieved 1 November 2017. {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL condition unknown (link)
40. ^ ^{a b c} Higham, T. E.; Anderson, C. V. (2014), "Function and accommodation of chameleons", in Tolley, G. A.; Herrel, A. (eds.), The Biology of Chameleons, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 63–83
41. ^ ^{a b c d e} Anderson, C. Five.; Sheridan, T.; Deban, S. M. (2012). "Scaling of the ballistic natural language apparatus in chameleons". Periodical of Morphology. 273 (11): 1214–1226. doi:10.1002/jmor.20053. PMID 22730103. S2CID 21033176.
42. ^ Anderson, Christopher V. (2009) Rhampholeon spinosus feeding video. chamaeleonidae.com
43. ^ ^{a b c d east} Herrel, A.; Meyers, J. J.; Nishikawa, K. C.; De Vree, F. (2001). "Morphology and histochemistry of the hyolingual appliance in chameleons". Journal of Morphology. 249 (2): 154–170. doi:x.1002/jmor.1047. PMID 11466743. S2CID 3246256.
44. ^ ^{a b c d e} de Groot, J. H.; van Leeuwen, J. 50. (2004). "Bear witness for an rubberband projection mechanism in the chameleon tongue". Proceedings of the Imperial Society of London B. 271 (1540): 761–770. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2637. PMC1691657. PMID 15209111.
45. ^ ^{a b c} Anderson, C. V.; Higham, T. E. (2014), "Chameleon anatomy", in Tolley, K. A.; Herrel, A. (eds.), The Biology of Chameleons, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 7–55
46. ^ ^{a b c d eastward} Anderson, C. V.; Deban, Due south. M. (2010). "Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains loftier performance at low temperature". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United states of america of America. 107 (12): 5495–5499. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.5495A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910778107. PMC2851764. PMID 20212130.
47. ^ ^{a b} Anderson, C. V.; Deban, S. Grand. (2012). "Thermal effects on motor control and in vitro muscle dynamics of the ballistic tongue apparatus in chameleons". Journal of Experimental Biology. 215 (24): 4345–4357. doi:10.1242/jeb.078881. PMID 23125336.
48. ^ Herrel, A.; Meyers, J. J.; Aerts, P.; Nishikawa, Yard. C. (2000). "The mechanics of prey prehension in chameleons" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology. 203 (Pt 21): 3255–3263. doi:10.1242/jeb.203.21.3255. PMID 11023845. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-xx. Retrieved 2014-eleven-sixteen .
49. ^ ^{a b} Elaina Zachos (2018-01-18). "Chameleon Bones Glow in the Dark, Even Through Pare". National Geographic . Retrieved 2018-08-03 .
50. ^ "Habitat loss and fragmentation reduce chameleon population in Tanzania". Phys.org . Retrieved ane November 2017.
51. ^ Glaw, Frank; Vences, Miguel (1994). A Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles of Madagascar (second ed.). Köln: Verlags GbR. ISBN978-3-929449-01-3.
52. ^ Diaz-Paniagua, Cuadrado, Influence of incubation conditions on hatching success, embryo evolution and hatchling phenotypes of common chameleon eggs, pp. 429–440 ^{[ full citation needed ]}
53. ^ Andrews, Furnishings of incubation temperature on growth and performance of the veiled chameleon (Chamaeleo calyptratus, Journal of Experimental Zooly, pp. 435–446 ^{[ full citation needed ]}
54. ^ ^{a b} "African Rainforest". Jackson'southward Chameleon. Toronto Zoo. Archived from the original on Nov 11, 2011. Retrieved January ix, 2012.
55. ^ ^{a b c} Dever, Jennifer (December 5, 2007). "Common Chameleon" (PDF). usfca.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2015. Retrieved January 9, 2012.
56. ^ "Reptiles and Amphibians: Veiled Chameleon". Smithsonian National Zoological Park. Archived from the original on 2011-12-17. Retrieved January ix, 2012.
57. ^ Karsten, One thousand. B.; Ferguson M. W.; Chen T. C.; Holick M. F. (2009). "Panther chameleons, Furcifer pardalis, behaviorally regulate optimal exposure to UV depending on dietary vitamin D3 condition". Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 82 (three): 218–25. doi:10.1086/597525. PMID 19335229. S2CID 205990383.
58. ^ ^{a b} Stuart-Play a joke on, D (2014).  Chameleon Beliefs and color Change.  In  K. A.  Tolley,  & A.  Herrel  (Eds.), The Biology of  Chameleons (pp.  115–130).  Berkeley: University of California Press.
59. ^ Measey,  G. J.,  Raselimanana,  A., &  Herrel,  A. (2014).  Ecology and Life History of  Chameleons. In  K.  A. Tolley,  &  A. Herrel  (Eds.), The  Biology of  Chameleons  (pp. 85–114).  Berkeley:  University of California Press.
60. ^ Berg, Philipp; Berg, Jessica; Berg, Rainer (2020). "Predator–prey interaction betwixt a boomslang, Dispholidus types, and a flap-necked chameleon, Chamaeleo dilepis". African Periodical of Ecology. 58 (4): 855–859. doi:10.1111/aje.12782.
61. ^ Le Berre and Bartlett, p. 110
62. ^ ^{a b} Le Berre and Bartlett, p. 109
63. ^ Sloboda, Michal; Modrý, David (2006). "New species of Choleoeimeria (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) from the veiled chameleon, Chamaeleo calyptratus (Sauria: Chamaeleonidae), with taxonomic revision of eimerian coccidia from chameleons". Folia Parasitologica. 53 (2): 91–97. doi:10.14411/fp.2006.012. PMID 16898122.
64. ^ ^{a b c d due east} Carpenter, Angus I.; Marcus Rowcliffe, J.; Watkinso n, Andrew R. (2004). "The dynamics of the global trade in chameleons". Biological Conservation. 120 (2): 291–301. doi:ten.1016/j.biocon.2004.03.002. ISSN 0006-3207.
65. ^ Rabinovitch, Oded (2013). "Chameleons between Science and Literature: Observation, Writing, and the Early on Parisian Academy of Sciences in the Literary Field". History of Scientific discipline. fifteen (1): 47. Bibcode:2013HisSc..51...33R. doi:10.1177/007327531305100102. S2CID 140879009.

General bibliography [edit]

• Le Berre, François; Bartlett, Richard D. (2009). The Chameleon Handbook. Barron'due south Educational Series. 3rd Edition. ISBN 0764141422.

Further reading [edit]

• "Scientists observe Madagascar chameleon last seen 100 years ago". Associated Printing. xxx October 2020.
• Anderson, C. V.; Deban, S. M. (2010). "Ballistic natural language projection in chameleons maintains high operation at low temperature". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United states. 107 (12): 5495–5499. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.5495A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910778107. PMC2851764. PMID 20212130.
• Anderson, C. V.; Deban, South. M. (2012). "Thermal effects on motor control and in vitro muscle dynamics of the ballistic natural language apparatus in chameleons". Journal of Experimental Biology. 215 (24): 4345–4357. doi:ten.1242/jeb.078881. PMID 23125336.
• Anderson, C. V.; Sheridan, T.; Deban, S. Thou. (2012). "Scaling of the ballistic tongue apparatus in chameleons". Journal of Morphology. 273 (11): 1214–1226. doi:x.1002/jmor.20053. PMID 22730103. S2CID 21033176.
• Davison, Linda J. Chameleons: Their Care and Convenance. Hancock Firm Publishers, 1997.
• de Groot, J. H.; van Leeuwen, J. L. (2004). "Evidence for an rubberband projection mechanism in the chameleon natural language. ". Proceedings of the Royal Social club of London B. 271 (1540): 761–770. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2637. PMC1691657. PMID 15209111.
• de Vosjoli, Philippe. Essential Intendance of Chameleons. Avant-garde Vivarium Systems, 2004.
• Herrel, A.; Meyers, J. J.; Nishikawa, K. C.; De Vree, F. (2001). "Morphology and histochemistry of the hyolingual apparatus in chameleons". Journal of Morphology. 249 (2): 154–170. doi:10.1002/jmor.1047. PMID 11466743. S2CID 3246256.

External links [edit]

bradshawbarten.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chameleon

Share this post